by Kristen Tregar

We often think of borders as physical places—rivers, mountain chains, or fence lines—that separate specific places from each other. Borders separate neighborhoods, counties, states, or countries. But borders don’t have to be physical at all. One way groups of people distinguish themselves from others is by sharing a common language. By speaking, reading, and writing in a particular language, members of a group identify themselves as being part of the community. 

It is probably unsurprising, then, to note that classics of Russian literature were originally written in the Russian language. They were written by Russian people for a Russian audience using an alphabet and selection of words that would be mutually understood. At the same time, these stories also contained universal themes that meant audiences outside of Russia would also like to read them. For that to be possible, they had to be translated.
When someone translates a text, it requires extending a hand across a linguistic barrier, looking for ways to connect with speakers of a different language. And yet, translation always requires some degree of adaptation. All languages have words or phrases that are difficult, if not impossible, to translate. (For example, the word “pochemuchka” does not directly translate into English but can be somewhat understood as “someone who asks too many questions, particularly a child.”) In these cases, the distance between languages presents more of an obstacle, and yet, translators do their best to bridge those gaps.

In terms of Russian literature, efforts to make those cross-cultural connections began a long time ago. When Catherine the Great arrived in Russia in the 18th century, she brought with her an appreciation of the arts, philosophy, and literature. Her reign began a sharing of knowledge that continued well into the 19th century, with the rise of a Russian literary tradition that became known all over the world. Writers like Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Ivan Turgenev, and Leo Tolstoy crafted texts that enjoyed the same level of prominence as continental authors such as Charles Dickens, Jane Austen, Gustave Flaubert, Victor Hugo, and the Brontës. Dramatic literature similarly blossomed in Russia and beyond, with plays by Anton Chekov being staged down the road from those penned by Henrik Ibsen. 

As Russian authors became known more widely, their translated works offered opportunities for connection between the citizens of Russia (and later, the USSR) and other nations, including the United States. The Russian texts were subsequently treated to a wide range of adaptations for both the stage and the screen. 

A few examples: 

Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s classic novel Crime and Punishment (1866) has served as the basis for a number of films and adaptations. Most notably, the novel was made into a film in 1935 starring Peter Lorre, Edward Arnold, and Marian Marsh. In 2002, an American film was made of Crime and Punishment starring Crispin Glover, Vanessa Redgrave, and Margot Kidder. 

War and Peace, 1956.
Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace (1869) has been adapted many times for both the theatre and the cinema. One noteworthy film version was produced in 1956 and was directed by King Vidor. That film starred Audrey Hepburn, Henry Fonda, and Mel Ferrer. More recently, an electropop stage musical adaptation called Natasha, Pierre & The Great Comet of 1812 was written by Dave Malloy. The musical opened on Broadway in 2016 starring Josh Groban as Pierre and Denée Benton as Natasha, and the production garnered 12 Tony Award nominations.

Keira Knightley in Anna Karenina, 2012.

Leo Tolstoy’s novel Anna Karenina (1878) has proven to be a very popular source text for a range of adaptations. An American film adaptation called Love was made in 1927 and starred Greta Garbo. Garbo reprised the role in a critically acclaimed 1935 film directed by Clarence Brown. A stage musical version with book and lyrics by Peter Kellogg and music by Daniel Levine opened at Circle in the Square Theatre in New York City in 1992, receiving four Tony nominations. In 2012, another film adaptation was made, directed by Joe Wright and starring Keira Knightley.

Doctor Zhivago film poster, 1965.

Perhaps one of the best-known Russian texts to cross the Atlantic is Doctor Zhivago, written by Boris Pasternak in 1957. This text formed the basis of a 1965 film directed by David Lean that starred Omar Sharif, Julie Christie, Geraldine Chaplin, and Alec Guinness. The film won five Oscars and is particularly remembered for “Lara’s Theme,” part of the score written by Maurice Jarre. In 2006, a stage musical version of Doctor Zhivago, composed by Lucy Simon, with lyrics by Michael Korie and Amy Powers and book by Michael Weller, premiered at La Jolla Playhouse. It transferred to Broadway in 2015.

Through film and stage exposures to these classic texts, Americans have developed both understandings and expectations surrounding Russian literature. Perhaps chief among these expectations are that classic Russian texts are expected to be very long (possibly due to examples such as the 1956 film of War and Peace, which was 208 minutes long, or the Oscar-winning 1956 film of Doctor Zhivago, which had a running time of 198 minutes); set in cold locations; and containing somewhat sad or morose plotlines. These characterizations of Russian literature have become so well known that George and Ira Gershwin even used them as a metaphor in their song “But Not for Me,” where the lyrics say “I’ve seen more clouds of gray than any Russian play could guarantee.” But nevertheless, the memorable characters and settings of these stories have proven to be so moving that American authors and directors continue to return to them time and time again.